Understanding the effectiveness and design of parent-oriented mobile health interventions: a systematic review and narrative synthesis

Kilfoy, Alicia; Zaffino, Isabella; McAtee , Enoch; Panesar, Prabdeep; Cleverley, Kristin; Pham, Quynh; Chu, Charlene H.; Jibb, Lindsay

doi:10.1186/s12887-025-05656-y

Table 2 Interventional features and design

From: Understanding the effectiveness and design of parent-oriented mobile health interventions: a systematic review and narrative synthesis

Author, Year	Intervention Target	Framework/Theoretical Model	Digital Modality	Intervention Description	Co-Design	Frequency of Use	Outcomes and Measurement Tool
							Outcome	Tool
Bernier et al., 2018 [45]	Child health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	An animation-based diabetes educational web application designed to run as an iBook	Each element and iteration of the intervention was reviewed with patients and their families in clinical and camp settings to guide the look and usability	Once	Parent Childhood diabetes knowledge	The Diabetes Knowledge Test [95]
Bhatia et al., 2020 [46]	Child health	Extended health belief model	Text messaging	Daily personalized text message reminder from an oncologist to the patient and parent to prompt direct supervised therapy	Not discussed	Daily for 16 weeks	Child Mercaptopurine adherence	Microelectronic technology used to record openings of bottles
Castensøe-Seidenfaden et al., 2018 [47]	Child health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	mHealth app aimed at improving self-management of diabetes in young people and their parents	The app was developed using a participatory approach, but specifics not discussed	As needed for 12 months	Child HbA1 C	Bloodwork
							Child perceived competence managing diabetes	Perceived Competence in Diabetes Scale [96]
							Autonomy-supportive in providing general treatment	Health Care Climate Questionnaire [96]
							Child perceived burden of diabetes	Problem Areas in Diabetes Care Survey [97]
							Child severe hypoglycemic episodes	Self-report
							Child acute diabetes-related hospitalizations	Self-report
Cheung et al., 2022 [48]	Child health	Theoretical framework of the brief motivational interviewing	Previously developed mobile application	Mobile instant messaging-delivered brief motivational interviewing for parents to promote physical activity in pediatric cancer survivors	Not discussed	Weekly for 6 months	Child physical activity	Chinese University of Hong Kong Physical Activity Rating for Children and Youth Scale [98]
							Child fatigue	Chinese Version of the Fatigue Scale [99,100,101]
							Child left handgrip strength	Handheld dynamometer
							Child right handgrip strength	Handheld dynamometer
							Child peak expiratory flow rate	Peak flow meter
							Child Quality of Life	Chinese Version of the Pediatric QoL Inventory Scale [102]
Coker et al., 2023 [49]	Child health	Social cognitive theory	Text messaging	A parent-focused texting tool designed to provide parents with strategies for managing their child's asthma and improving communication with their child's primary care practitioner	Not discussed	2–3 times a week for 3 months	Parental Communication self-efficacy	Medical Competence Communication Scale [103]
							Parental asthma self-management knowledge	Asthma Self-Management Knowledge Questionnaire [104]
							Child health care utilization	Parent reported
							Asthma morbidity	Questionnaire validated previously in inner city asthma consortium study [105]
Cooper et al., 2020 [50]	Parental health	Not discussed	Previously developed mobile application	Retrieving data. Wait a few seconds and try to cut or copy again	Not discussed	Twice weekly for 4 months	Parent stress	Parenting Stress Index [106]
							Parent post-traumatic stress disorder	Post Traumatic Diagnostic Scale [107]
							Parent QoL	Ulm Quality of Life Inventory for Parents [108]
							Child weight	Medical records
							Child number of unplanned hospital readmissions	Medical records
Everhart et al., 2017 [51]	Parental health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	A smartphone app for lower-income urban parents to improve management of their child's asthma	Not discussed	Daily for 14 days	Parent QoL	Pediatric Asthma Parent Quality of Life Questionnaire [109]
							Parent perceived stress	Perceived Stress Scale [110]
							Parent positive affect	Positive and Negative Affect Schedule [111]
Fedele et al., 2021 [52]	Child health	Pediatric self-management framework	Novel mobile application	A mobile app to improve asthma self-management in early adolescence	User-centered design methods used. Developed through iterative feedback from an advisory board composed of adolescent dyads	Twice a day for three weeks, as needed for 2 months	Parent family asthma management self-efficacy	Family Asthma Management System Scale [112]
							Parent family communication	Decision Making Involvement Scale [113]
							Child asthma control	Spirometer
							Child lung function	Forced expiratory volume
							Child QoL	Pediatric Asthma Quality of Life Questionnaire [109]
							Child self-efficacy	Asthma Management Efficacy Questionnaire [114]
Green et al.,2017; Smaldone et al., 2018 [53, 54]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Text-message reminders to improve hydroxyurea adherence	Partner community-based organization, Community League of the heights participated in designing the intervention and throughout the study	Daily for 3 months and as needed	Child fetal hemoglobin	Blood work
							Child ED visits	Parent reported
							Child Hospitalizations	Parent reported
							Child HU pharmacy refill	PDC calculation
							Child HU adherence	Morisky Self-Report Scale [115]
Hajiabolhasani-Nargani et al., 2016 [55]	Parental health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Mobile parenting skills education for mothers with autistic children	Not discussed	Daily for 2 months	Parent anxiety	Spielberger Questionnaire [116]
Hannon et al., 2018 [56]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Mobile self-monitoring blood glucose technology and family-centered goal setting	Not discussed	Daily for 6 months	Child HbA1 C number of SMBG tests	Blood work
Hannon et al., 2018 [56]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging		Not discussed	Daily for 6 months	Child number of SMBG tests	SMBG data transmitted through telecare system
Hemdi et al., 2017 [57]	Parental health	Psychological models of stress and coping	Previously developed mobile application	Psychoeducation intervention delivered via WhatsApp for mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder	Not discussed	6 sessions (30 min each)	Parent stress, distress	Parenting Stress Index Short Form [106]
							Parent distress	Parenting Stress Index Short Form – Parent Distress Subscale [106]
							Parent anxiety	Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale [117]
							Parent depression	Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale [117]
							Parent happiness	Arabic Scale of Happiness [118]
							Parent parent child dysfunctional interaction	Parenting Stress Index Short Form [106]
							Child autism severity	Indian Scale for Autism Assessment [119]
							Child behaviour problems	Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire [120]
Hilliard et al., 2020 [58]	Child and parental health	Diabetes resilience model	Novel mobile application	A strengths-based mHealth app for parents of adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes	The app was designed with input from adolescents with T1D, their parents, and pediatric diabetes care providers	Daily for 3–4 months	Parent impact of diabetes	PedQL Family Impact Module and Diabetes Family Impact Scale [121]
							Parent family conflict	Diabetes Family Conflict Scale Revised [122]
							Parent perception of parents miscarried helping	Helping for Health Inventory [123]
							Parent parent-adolescent relationship	Parent-Youth Relationship Index [124]
							Parent distress	Problem Areas in Diabetes Measures for Parents [125]
							Child diabetes strengths	Diabetes Strengths and Resilience [126]
							Child QoL	Monitoring Individual Needs in Diabetes Youth Questionnaire [127]
							Child distress	Problem Areas in Diabetes Measures for Adolescent [128]
							Child degree to which diabetes bothered them	Six-point scale (no citation however internal reliability reported as high)
							Child self-management behaviours	Diabetes Self-Management Profile [129]
							Child self-care	Self-care Inventory Revised [130]
							Child HbA1 C	Blood work
Hinton et al., 2017 [59]	Child health	Self-regulatory framework for parents	Previously developed mobile application	A telehealth intervention aimed at treating and preventing severe behavioural, emotional, and developmental problems in children and adolescents with a disability	Parents were surveyed to determine what extra support they wanted included in the intervention	Weekly for 9 months	Parent satisfaction	The Client Satisfaction Questionnaire [131]
							Parent parenting practices and parenting self-efficacy	Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale – Developmental Disability [132]
							Parent adjustment	Parenting and Family Adjustment Scale [133]
							Child behavioural and emotional problems	Developmental Checklist – Primary Carer Version [134]
							Child prosocial behaviour and skills	Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale – Developmental Disability [132]
							Child total problems	Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale – Developmental Disability [132]
Hofstetter et al., 2017 [60]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Text message reminders for vaccination of adolescents with chronic medical conditions	Not discussed	Weekly for 5 months	Parent vaccine safety and effectiveness	Survey made for trial
							Child vaccines received	Immunization registry
							Child missed vaccine opportunities	Immunization registry
Holtz et al., 2022 [61]	Child health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	App-based family communication intervention aimed to assist in adolescent self-management of Type 1 Diabetes	The team developed a paper prototype based on focus groups to determine the design, interest, design, and functionalities of the intervention. Additional focus groups were held and these sessions focused on what the adolescents wanted from the app including game functionalities and the ability to customize the app. They also wanted their parents to be engaged through the app. A prototype was developed and tested with 10 families who provided feedback	Daily for 12 weeks	Parent quality of family life	Impact on Family Scale [135]
							Child HbA1 C	Blood work
							Child self-management activities/adherence to diabetes medical regimens	Diabetes Behavior Rating Scale [136]
							Child QoL	Pediatric QoL Inventory Type 1 Diabetes Module [137]
Huang et al., 2022 [62]	Child and parental health	Not discussed	Previously developed mobile application	Telehealth education via WeChat to improve the quality of life of parents of children with Type- 1 Diabetes	Not discussed	Daily 6 months	Parent: anxiety	Self-rating Anxiety Scale [138]
							Parent depression	Self-rating Depression Scale [139]
							Parent QoL	World Health Organization Quality of Life Brief Scale [140]
							Child fasting blood glucose	Blood work
							Child hyperglycemia or hypoglycemia	Not reported
							Child HbA1 C	Blood work
							Child rehospitalizations	Not reported
Jamali et al., 2022 [63]	Child health	Not discussed	Previously developed mobile application	Occupation performance coaching for families of children with autism spectrum disorder by means of telerehabilitation	Not discussed	Twice a week for 8 weeks	Parent occupational performance	Canadian Occupational Performance Measure [141]
							Parent goal attainment	Goal Attainment Scale [142]
							Parent parenting self-efficacy	Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale—Developmental Disability [132]
							Child autism treatment evaluation	Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist [143]
							Child total problems	Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale—Developmental Disability [132]
							Child prosocial behaviours	Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale—Developmental Disability [132]
							Child QoL	Short Form Health Survey [144]
Jaser et al., 2019 [64]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Positive psychology intervention for adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes	Not discussed	Weekly for 8 weeks	Child HbA1 C	Bloodwork
							Child perceived adherence to diabetes treatment	Self-Care Inventory [145]
							Child affect	Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children [146]
							Child QoL	Pediatric QoL Inventory Type 1 Diabetes Module [147]
							Child coping with diabetes related stress	Responses to Stress Questionnaire [148]
							Child diabetes treatment recommendations	Average checks/day over the previous 30 days
Johansson et al., 2020 [65]	Child health	Not discussed	Combination of approaches	Mobile health support system for pediatric obesity treatment	Not discussed	Daily for 6 months	Child body mass index	Clinic visit
Kenyon et al., 2019 [66]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Text message reminders for controller adherence following hospital discharge in high-risk children with asthma	Not discussed	7 reminders over 30 days	Child inhaled corticosteroid adherence	Electronic sensors
Kenyon et al., 2019 [66]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging		Not discussed	7 reminders over 30 days	Asthma control	Child asthma control test (no reference provided)
Khaksar et al., 2022 [67]	Parental health	Family-centered care model	Previously developed mobile application	Bedside telehealth to improve family-centered care and decrease maternal stress in pediatric hospitalizations	Not discussed	Twice a day for 7 days	Parent stress	Stress response inventory [149]
Kim et al., 2016 [68]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Parent involvement intervention in developing weight management skills for both parents and overweight/obese children	Not discussed	Weekly for 5 weeks	Parent lifestyle	Lifestyle behaviour checklist [150]
							Parent child-parent relationship	Child-parent relationship scale [151]
							Child body mass index	Clinic visit
							Child dietary self-efficacy	Dietary self-efficacy scale [152]
Lee et al., 2017 [69]	Child health	Banduras social learning theory	Previously developed mobile application	School-based weight management program involving parents via mHealth for overweight and obese children and adolescents with intellectual disability	Experts (one physical activity specialist, one dietitian and one educational psychologist) and two school nurses were involved in the design	24 sessions over 6 months 1	Parent preferred cooking methods	Not reported
							Child QoL	Chinese version of the pediatric quality of life scale [153]
							Child self-esteem	Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale [154]
							Child self-efficacy in peer interaction	Children’s self-efficacy in peer interactions [155]
							Child perceived body shape	Perceived body shape scale [156]
							Child body image	Perceived body image questionnaire [157]
							Child nutrition self-efficacy	Nutrition self-efficacy scale [158]
							Child triceps skinfold thickness	Clinic visit
							Child BMI	Clinic visit
							Child subscapular skinfold thickness	Clinic visit
							Child waist to hip ratio	Clinic visit
							Child health knowledge and health behaviours	Scores on food pyramid tests, sports pyramid test, snack choice test (citation not provided)
							Child’s relationships with parents and teachers	Not reported
							Child body image perceptions	Self-figure rating scale [159]
Lepley et al., 2020 [70]	Child health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	Acute illness educational intervention in the pediatric emergency department using mHealth or books	Not discussed	One time	Child non-urgent visits to ED	Parent reported and chart review
Liu et al., 2018 [71]	Child health	Not discussed	Previously developed mobile application	WeChat—assisted perioperative care instructions for parents of pediatric patients undergoing day surgery for herniorrhaphy	Not discussed	As needed for 7 days	Parent knowledge	10-item multiple choice knowledge questionnaire related to perioperative care (no citation given)
							Child rates of cancellation of surgery	Not reported
							Child postoperative complications	Not reported
							Child adverse events	Not reported
Luo et al., 2021 [72]	Parental health	Resilience framework	Previously developed mobile application	Mobile device-based resilience training program designed to reduce depressive symptoms and enhance resilience and quality of life in parents of children with cancer	Not discussed	Weekly for 8 weeks	Parent resilience	Connor Davidson resilience scale [160]
							Parent depression	Self-rating depression scale [139]
							Parent QoL	Short form of the 6-dimension health survey [161]
McDuffie et al., 2018 [73]	Child health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	Distance delivery of a spoken language intervention for school-aged and adolescent boys with Fragile X Syndrome	Not discussed	Weekly for 12 weeks	Parent strategy use	Story-telling interaction examples (not citation provided)
							Child engagement	Story-telling interaction examples (not citation provided)
							Child story-related talking	Story-telling interaction examples (not citation provided)
							Child number of words	Story-telling interaction examples (not citation provided)
							Child mean length of utterance	Story-telling interaction examples (not citation provided)
Miloh et al., 2017 [74]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Text messaging to promote adherence in children with Inflammatory Bowel Disease	Not discussed	Patient's preference for 12 months	Child adherence	Morisky adherence questionnaire (citation not provided)
							Child disease activity	Pediatric Crohn’s/Ulcerative Colitis disease activity index (citation not provided)
							Child surgery	Chart review
							Child numbers of admission	Chart review
							Child ER visits	Chart review
							Child number of clinic no shows	Chart review
							Child weight change	Chart review
							Child height change	Chart review
							Child BMI change	Chart review
Modi et al., 2016 [75]	Child health	Not discussed	Combination of approaches	Text messaging and application-based adherence interventions in adolescents with epilepsy	Not discussed	Daily for 30 days	Child adherence over time	Medication event monitoring system
Moghimi et al., 2018 [76]	Parental health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Resilience teaching via short message service on stress of mothers of educable mentally retarded children	Not discussed	Four texts daily for 1.5 months	Parent resilience	Connor-Davidson resilience scale [160]
Moghimi et al., 2018 [76]	Parental health	Not discussed	Text messaging		Not discussed	Four texts daily for 1.5 months	Parent stress	Abidin parenting stress index [106]
Mruzek et al., 2019 [77]	Child health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	iOS-based app for toilet training children with autism spectrum disorder	Not discussed	Several times a day for 12 weeks	Parent training fidelity	Parent training and treatment fidelity checklist (created for study)
							Parent anticipated of effectiveness	Parent expectancies scales [162]
							Parent satisfaction	Parent satisfaction survey (created for study)
							Child number of times the child urinated on the toilet	Parent reported
							Child number of toileting accidents	Parent reported
							Child's level of toileting independence	Parent reported
Mulligan et al., 2022 [78]	Parental health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	Web-based tool for parents of children with Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis	A focus group was conducted with 6 parents to ask their views on what the website should include. 2 focus groups with 12 health care professionals- 6 (50%) rheumatologists, 5 (42%) rheumatology nurse specialists, and 1 (8%) clinical psychologist-to ask their views on what the website should include. The resulting prototype website was tested by 7 parents and eight health professionals (4, 50%, rheumatologists; 2, 25%, rheumatology nurse specialists; 1, 13%, physiotherapist; and 1, 13%, clinical psychologist) to evaluate usability, navigation, structure, layout, and content. Minor changes were made to the website after this assessment	As needed for 12 months	Parent stress	Pediatric inventory for parents [163]
							Parent anxiety	Hospital anxiety and depression scale [117]
							Parent depression	Hospital anxiety and depression scale [117]
							Parent confidence in managing their child's arthritis	Parent’s arthritis self-efficacy scale [164]
							Parent effectiveness in managing their child's health care	Effective consumer adapted [165]
							Parent satisfaction with health care	Client satisfaction questionnaire [166]
							Child health related QoL	Child health questionnaire [167]
Nkoy et al., 2021 [79]	Child health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	Home-monitoring application for children with medical complexity	Team previously identified preferences and key functionalities that parents found important for a CMC home-monitoring app.53 The results were used to design MyChildCMC and test it for usability with parents	Daily for 3 months	Parent satisfaction	Adapted version of the client satisfaction questionnaire [168]
							Child QoL	Parent perceptions of quality of life [169]
							Child ED or hospital admission	Chart review
							Child days in hospital	Chart review
Phillips et al., 2014 [80]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Mobile phone multimedia messages and text messages for improving clinic attendance for Aboriginal children with chronic otitis media	The style, design and interpretation of messages were determined in consultation with local Indigenous teachers and interpreters. The decision to use MMS rather than text alone was based on local advice that MMS were a more interesting, novel and potentially a more appealing method of communication than texts and that the videos could be shared among families	7 messages (one every 5 days for 6 weeks)	Child clinic visits	Chart review
							Child healed perforation	Clinic visit
							Child middle ear discharge	Clinic visit
							Child ear perforations size	Clinic visit
Phipps et al., 2020 [81]	Parental health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	Web-based administration of a problem-solving skills intervention for parents of children with cancer	Development followed a user-centered design process, which included a series of formative focus groups to obtain parent perspectives. An initial website prototype was then reviewed by representative users from the study sites. Feedback from this review was used by the developers, and program changes were updated in a stepwise incremental process	Weekly for 8 weeks	Parent problem-solving skills	The social problem-solving inventory [170]
							Parent total mood disturbance	Profile of mood states scale [171]
							Parent symptoms of depression	Patient health questionnaire [172]
							Parent posttraumatic stress	Impact of events scale revised [173]
Salinero et al., 2021 [82]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Text message reminders to increase follow-up compliance after discharge from a pediatric emergency department	Not discussed	One time text	Child number of patients who followed up with a primary care clinic after discharge	Telephone follow up and chart review
							Child mean number of days to follow up	Telephone follow up and chart review
							Child number of patients who followed up with either the primary care clinic or the ED	Telephone follow up and chart review
Singer et al., 2018 [83]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Texting atopic dermatitis patients to optimize learning and eczema area and severity index scores	This pilot study involved receiving participant feedback regarding study experiences for future iterations of texting intervention	Daily for 42 days	Parent knowledge	16 question multiple choice atopic dermatitis knowledge quiz (no citation provided)
Singer et al., 2018 [83]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging			Daily for 42 days	Child extent and severity of eczema	Eczema area severity index [174]
Swallow et al., 2014 [84]	Parental health	Banduras self-efficacy theory	Novel mobile application	An interactive health communication application (online parent empowerment model) for supporting parents managing childhood long-term conditions	The OPIS application was developed in collaboration with families and health professionals. Interviews with 32 parents, 26 parents and 12 professionals were interviewed and feasibility testing	As needed for 20 weeks	Parent health literacy fathers support for managing disease	The rapid estimate for adult literacy in medicine [175]
							Parent management abilities	Family management measure [176]
							Parent Empowerment	Family empowerment scale [177]
							Parent fathers support for managing disease	Dad’s active disease support scale [178]
Talisuna et al., 2017 [85]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Text-message reminders on paediatric malaria treatment adherence and their post-treatment return to health facilities in in Kenya	Content, timing, understanding, and distribution had undergone extensive pre-testing with community members, parents, and patients at four facilities within the same county but outside of the study area	11 messages over 29 days	Child adherence to complete medicine course and individual doses	Pill count and self-report
Talisuna et al., 2017 [85]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging			11 messages over 29 days	Child return to clinic	Clinic visit
Taveras et al., 2017 [86]	Child health	Positive outlier approach	Combination of approaches	Enhanced primary care and family coaching to leverage clinical and community resources to improve obesity and family-centered outcomes	The intervention was built on strategies recommended by a diverse group of stakeholders representing parents, children, pediatricians, and community members (chart audit, focus groups with obese children)	Twice-weekly text messages or emails and bimonthly meetings for 1 year	Parent empowerment	Child weight management subscale of the parent resource empowerment scale [179]
							Parent satisfaction	Parents were asked about whether they were satisfied with their child’s health care (no citation provided)
							Child body mass index	Chart review
							Child QoL	Pediatric quality of life – parent proxy [179, 180]
Teach et al., 2021[87]	Child and parental health	Not discussed	Text messaging	An intervention to manage parent psychosocial stress to improve asthma outcomes	Multidimensional stakeholder engagement included election of patient-centered outcome measures, refinement of intervention content and format, and language framing the study in a culturally appropriate manner	Weekly for 3 months	Parent stress	Perceived stress scale [110]
							Parent depression	Center for epidemiologic studies short depression scale [181]
							Parent resilience/optimism	Revised life orientation test [182]
							Parent quality of life	Pediatric asthma parent quality of life questionnaire [183]
							Parent use of stress management activities	Telephone follow-up
							Parent use of mental health resources	Telephone follow-up
							Parent sleep loss	Telephone follow-up
							Parent changing plans	Telephone follow-up
							Child symptom free days	Parent-reported
							Child asthma morbidity	Inner City Asthma Consortium [184]
							Child depression and anxiety	PROMIS parent proxy tool [185]
							Child reported adherence to asthma medication	Not reported
							Child asthma control	Childhood asthma control test [186]
							Child unscheduled asthma related health care utilizations	Telephone follow up
Weisman et al., 2018 [88]	Child health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	A smartphone application in improving medication adherence, among children with ADHD	Not discussed	Daily for 8 weeks	Child pill count	Parent-reported
Weisman et al., 2018 [88]	Child health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application		Not discussed	Daily for 8 weeks	Child ADHD symptom severity	Clinician rating scale [187], ADHD-Rating scale [188], and clinical global impression [189]
Whitehouse et al., 2017 [89]	Child health	Not discussed	Novel mobile application	ASD intervention programme that is accessible on a touch-screen device and targets a wide range of developmental abilities and complements early behavioural intervention	The app's acceptability and feasibility were established in a series of case studies	Daily for 6 months	Child developmental skills related to ASD	The autism treatment evaluation checklist [190]
							Child developmental abilities	Mullen scales of early learning [191]
							Child adaptive behaviours	Vineland adaptive behaviour scales [192]
							Child language and social development	Communication and symbolic behaviour scales developmental profile parent questionnaire [193]
							Child repetitive and restricted behaviours and interests	Repetitive behaviour scale-revised, behaviour flexibility rating scale [194]
Yang et al., 2016 [90]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Smartphone-based tonsillectomy education	The content of text message was developed based on a literature review and an assessment of patients'knowledge by a committee of clinical experts. The committee comprised two ENT specialists, four nurses with more than 7 years'clinical experience in the ENT wards, and one professor of college of nursing	Daily for 10 days	Parent (Mothers) knowledge	Self-reported survey developed by ENT specialists and researchers for study (no citation)
							Child anxiety	Modified eight-item self-report instrument
							Child sick-role behaviour	9-item questionnaire with a 3-point Likert-scale asking how well their child implemented measures to relieve their symptoms at home [195]
Zhang et al., 2018 [91]	Child health	Not discussed	Text messaging	Text messaging interventions to improve adherence in adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes	Not discussed	Weekly for 8 weeks	Child adherence to Type 1 Diabetes treatment regimen	Self-care inventory [145]
							Child glycemic control	Blood work
							Child adherence to medication	Downloading glucometer data to obtain frequency of blood glucose monitoring
Zhang et al., 2021 [92]	Parental health	Not discussed	Previously developed mobile application	Health education and care guidance at home via WeChat	Not discussed	Daily for 1 month	Parent anxiety	Self-rated anxiety scale [138]
							Parent depression	Self-rated depression scale [139]
							Parent QoL	World health organization quality of life [140]
Zhang et al., 2022a [93]	Child health	Not discussed	Previously developed mobile application	Remote health education and feeding guidance via WeChat	Not discussed	Daily for 1 month	Parent care ability	Family parent task inventory [196]
							Child nutritional status	STRONGkids scoring scale [197]
							Child albumin	Blood work
							Child Pre-albumin	Blood work
							Child hemoglobin	Blood work
							Child weight	Clinic visit
Zhang et al., 2022b [94]	Child and parental health	Not discussed	Previously developed mobile application	WeChat-assisted health education and preoperative care improve the mental state of parents of children with ventricular septal defect	Not discussed	Daily for 14.2 months	Parent transient and enduring levels of anxiety	State Trait Anxiety Inventory [198]
							Child complications	Clinic visit
							Child pneumonia	Clinic visit
							Child growth retardation	Clinic visit
							Child heart failure	Clinic visit

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Table 2 Interventional features and design

BMC Pediatrics

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